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BULLETIN 

OF THE 

UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS 

1915: No. 59 



OCTOBER 20 



1915 



COVER CROPS 



Prepared by 

J. O. MORGAN 

Professor of Agronomy in the Agricultural and 
Mechanical College of Texas 

and 

W. S. TAYLOR 

Associate Professor of Agricultural Education 
in The University of Texas 




Published by the University six times a month and entered as 

second-class matter at the postoffice at 

AUSTIN, TEXAS 



Wonograiji 



The benefits of education and of 
useful knowledge, generally diffused 
through a community, are essential 
to the preservation of a free gov- 
ernment. 

Sam Houston. 

Cultivated mind is the guardian 
genius of democracy. . . . It is the 
only dictator that freemen acknowl- 
edge and the only security that free- 
men desire. 

Mirabeau B. Lamar. 



D. Of 



^v 






To the Chairman of the Schoolhouse Meeting : 

The discussions of the questions given below have been pre- 
pared for the meeting to be held at the schoolhouse on Friday- 
afternoon and are for the use of the person who conducts the 
meeting. Usually it will be best to have the questions written 
upon the blackboard before the meeting takes place, and when 
the time for discussion arrives, first have the question read 
aloud and call for discussion from the members present. Occa- 
sionally the chairman should call out someone whom he knows 
to be well qualified to answer the question. At times it is well 
to let such person know several days in advance that he or she 
will be called upon so that special preparation may be made by 
study of some of the bulletins referred to in the bibliography 
or of other literature. As soon as discussion has brought out 
whatever of interest the members present may know, then have 
read the discussion of the question that is given below and, if 
desirable, allow discussion of that. Good judgment must be 
used by the chairman in calling out discussion and in stopping 
it before it becomes unprofitable. At times 'it would be well 
to omit or pass lightly over certain questions and concentrate 
on others. Be sure to stop before the members are tired, and 
always try to have the ideas that are brought out applied to 
the local conditions and needs. "When a meeting results in a 
desire to carry out some practical plan, arrange for those inter- 
ested in this plan to remain after the meeting and take the 
necessary steps at once. Strike while the iron is hot. 



Fellow Teacher and Fellow Citizens : 

The topic selected for study at this meeting is of the greatest 
importance to Texas. There can he no doubt that our State 
is losing tens of millions of dollars every year from failure to 
grow suitable cover crops during our mild winters. While the 
late summer and early fall drouths, the long growing season 
of the summer crops, and the ravages of insects offer serious 
difficulties to be met by those planting cover crops in Texas, 
it is nevertheless true that these difficulties can be overcome 
if attacked with intelligence and persistence. The discussion 
offered at this meeting will go a long way toward solving the 
cover crop problem in Texas. In addition to acquiring the 
general information given in the discussion below, it will be 
necessary to make experiments in every locality in order to 
find what is best suited to the soil, climate, farm needs, and 
market facilities of that section. Each one should try out a 
fraction of an acre each in rape, one or more legumes, cereals, 
and winter root crops, in order to learn the best times and 
methods of planting and handling these crops and to find out 
which are best suited to his needs. 

It is much regretted that this subject could not have been 
presented in August. Unfortunately, the schools were then 
closed. When the rural schools are open nine months in the 
year and schoolhouse meetings are held twice every month, 
such important topics will not have to be delayed two months 
waiting for the majority of our rural schools to open. 

At the next meeting we shall discuss the farm garden, giving 
particular attention to what can be done in the fall garden. 
After this, meetings will be devoted to these topics: Poultry 
on the Farm ; How to Prevent Disease on the Farm ; Insect- 
borne Diseases; Feeding the Family for Health and Efficiency; 
Labor-saving Devices on the Farm ; Labor-saving Devices in the 
Farm Home ; Practical Methods of Increasing Crops by Plant 
Breeding ; Tick Eradication ; The Rural School-and-Community 
Library; What the School Can Do for the Community; What 
the Community Can Do for the School; Crop Diversification; 
the Preservation and Marketing of Diversified Crops; Farm 
Co-operative Enterprises. In addition, there will be printed 



Schoolhouse Meeting — Discussion of Clover Crops 5 

in a general manual several programs devoted to pleasure and 
social enjoyment and several to the celebration of special days, 
such as Thanksgiving, Christmas, Washington's Birthday, 
Arbor Day, Independence Day, and San Jacinto Day. ■ Two 
debates, two musical programs, and a play and athletic pro- 
gram are also provided. This manual will be mailed out next 
month. 

Suggestions from any source are always welcome. We hope 
that anyone who has a criticism to offer or can suggest a way in 
which the plan or programs of these meetings may be improved 
will write freely to the undersigned. No one is obliged to 
follow the programs sent by us. They are merely offered in a 
spirit of friendly co-operation, to be used when you think best 
to do so. 

These schoolhouse meetings proved so successful last year in 
over two hundred schools in which they were tried that this 
year more than three thousand teachers have already personally 
sent in requests that the programs be sent them in order that 
they may carry on the meetings in their schools. We hope that 
many more will yet take up this valuable means of serving their 
communities and at the same time building up their schools. 
The programs, manual, and other helps will be sent free from 
time to time to any teacher desiring them. Let us all join hands 
in promoting this powerful means of building up our great 
State and making Texas a better place in which to live. 

A. CASWELL ELLIS, 

Acting Director, Department of Extension, 

The University of Texas, Austin, Texas. 



SCIIOOLHOUSE MEETING — DISCUSSION OF COVER 

CROPS. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. In what condition must the food material in the soil he 
in order to be taken in and used by the plant ? 

2. Is all of the plant food in the soil available to plants at 
all times; if not, what part of the total food material present 
is available at one time? 

3. What processes in the soil are constantly making new 
food material available? 

4. Are these processes going on in Texas in fall and winter 
when the ordinary crops are not growing? 

5. What happens to this available food material when a rain 
comes and plants are growing on the ground? 

6. What happens to it in fall and winter when a rain conies 
and plants are not growing on the ground? 

7. Give some concrete examples of the effect of washing and 
leaching of soil where no plants are growing. 

8. How many millions of dollars' worth of fertility is washed 
and leached out of the bare fields in Texas each winter.' 

9. What is a cover crop? 

10. What four great benefits do a cover crop bring to the 
farm ? 

11. What part of the year is your land idle or without a 
crop growing on it, and how much are you losing thereby .' 

12. Why is it especially desirable that cover crops be sown 
after dry summers? 

13. What leguminous crops are best suited for winter cover 
crops in Texas? What non-leguminous crops ? 

14. Discuss the preparation of the seed-bed for these winter 
cover crops. 

15. What is the best time for sowing, and how much seed 
per acre is required for each of the following: crimson clover, 
bur clover, vetch, rape, oats, rye, barley, wheat? 

16. Discuss the relative value of each of the above named 



8 Bulletin of the University of Texas 

crops as a winter cover, pasture, forage, and green manuring 
crop. 

17. Suggest combinations of these crops that might be of 
value for cover crops. 

18. There are about thirty million acres of land in Texas 
under cultivation. According to statistics, less than ten per 
cent of this land grows a winter cover crop. Assuming that 
the loss of plant food due to oxidation and leaching is $1.00 per 
acre, what would be the loss to Texas farmers in one year from 
failure to plant cover crops? What is probably more nearly a 
fair estimate of the loss? Will you not begin now to prevent 
this great loss? 

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS 

1. The plant food elements in the soil must first be dissolved 
in water before they can be taken up and used by the plant. 
Plants are like babies : they can take their food only in liquid 
form. 

2. In the average southern soil there is never more than a 
small fraction of the total food material in the soil in such a 
condition that the plant can use it. There is no definite per 
cent that can be given which will represent, even approxi- 
mately, the part of the total food supply which is at any one 
time available for the plant. The per cent varies greatly in 
different soils and in the same soil at different times. Some 
soils which have only a small amount of plant food present 
may have a high per cent of what they do have in such a con- 
dition that it may be used by the plant. Such soils may produce 
large crops for a few years, but will not last long. Other soils 
have a large amount of plant food in them, but only a small 
per cent in condition to be used by the plant. For example, 
we have many instances of soils which contain thirty to forty 
thousand pounds of potash per acre in the surface one foot of 
soil, and yet these soils will respond to an application of one 
hundred pounds per acre of an easily dissolved potash fer- 
tilizer. This shows that while there is potash enough in this 
soil to supply hundreds or even thousands of crops with potash, 
yet it is not in a condition to be used by the plants, and hence 



Schoolhouse Mating — Discussion of Clover Crops 9 

they are starving for the want of potash in a soluble form which 
they can use. In other words, they are like a man would be 
who was standing on a pile of iron ore and coal, and all the 
while his body starving for want of iron and carbon because 
his digestive system could not take in the insoluble iron in the 
ore and the insoluble carbon in the coal. 

3. There are chemical processes going on in the soil con- 
tinually which make the plant food available for the plants. 
This is done by changing the substances from an insoluble to 
a soluble form. These chemical changes progress much more 
rapidly under some conditions than under others and can be 
controlled to a very large degree by proper management of 
the soil. These chemical changes move much more rapidly in 
a warm than in a cold soil, and therefore we have more plant 
food made available in the soil in the spring and summer than 
in the winter, but in the South the soil is warm enough to keep 
these changes going on to some extent all the year. Stirring 
the soil also greatly increases the rapidity of these processes. 

4. These processes that render plant food in the soil soluble 
and therefore available to growing plants are continuous 
throughout the year in moist regions that have no freezing 
weather. New plant food is being made available for plants 
in most sections of Texas twelve months in every year. 

5. We have already learned that all plant food, in order to 
be available to growing plants must be in solution. We know, 
too, that plants obtain food and drink through their roots, or 
root-hairs. Where the ground is covered with a growing crop 
the surface of the soil is full of roots and root-hairs. These 
growing plants require large amounts of food and water. Just 
as fast as the plant food is made available in the soil it is taken 
in great quantities into the plant through the root-hairs by a 
process called osmosis, and when in the plant, is changed again 
into insoluble forms so that it cannot be dissolved and washed 
away by the rain. 

6. If a rain falls on the ground where no crop is growing 
the plant food that is in condition to be utilized by the plant 
is dissolved by the water. There being no plants to take it in 
and hold it. it is washed out of the soil and carried down too 



10 Bulletin of the University of Texas 

deep for the roots of the ordinary plant to reach it, or is 
washed away in surface and underground streams. 

7. If nitrate of soda is put into the soil at the same time 
the crop is planted and rains come before the young plants 
have their roots well distributed in the soil, the plant food in 
the fertilizer is largely leached out and lost. A farmer in 
North Texas placed $40.00 worth of fertilizer on five acres of 
sandy loam soil, and planted corn. Heavy rains fell almost 
continually for the next three weeks, with the result that this 
$8.00 per acre worth of fertilizer was leached so completely 
out of the soil that there was none left for the crop and one 
could not tell by the crop that a particle of fertilizer had ever 
been there. Have you ever seen black streams of water run- 
ning from a straw-stack or a farm lot after a rain? This color 
is due to the fact that the water is loaded with humus that has 
been dissolved from the straw or manure. The Maryland Ex- 
periment Station exposed eighty tons of manure for one year. 
At the end of this time it had been reduced to twenty-seven 
tons. Professor Shults of Canada exposed two tons of manure 
containing 1938 pounds of organic matter four months. At the 
end of this time there were only 655 pounds of organic matter 
left, and the nitrogen content had been reduced from forty- 
eight to twenty-eight pounds. Other experiment stations have 
obtained just as striking results. This same loss from leaching 
is going on in our southern soils every fall and winter wherever 
a bare field is left without a growing crop to send out its roots 
to take in the fresh soluble food material as fast as it is set 
free each warm day and convert it into insoluble plant material 
that cannot be leached out or washed away. Every bare field 
may not be losing as much as the $8.00 per acre worth of 
fertility lost by the North Texas farmer mentioned, but some 
doubtless lose even more than that, for often there are many 
weeks of hard winter rains. 

9. A cover crop is a crop usually planted in the late summer 
or autumn, that will provide a green, growing cover for the 
land during the late autumn and winter months. 

10. The cover crop is of value to the farm and farmer in 
four ways, as follows : 

(a) It takes in the plant food that becomes available during 



Schoolliause Meeting — Discussion of Clover Crops 11 

the fall and winter months, thus conserving it on the farm 
when it otherwise would be largely leached and washed out. 

(b) It furnishes excellent winter pasture for live stock. 

(c) It prevents washing and gullying. 

(d) It provides vegetable matter to turn under in spring 
and produce humus, which is so valuable to the soil in improv- 
ing its texture, increasing its water-holding capacity, and sup- 
porting the bacteria that help to make the food materials in 
the soil more soluble. "The Progressive Farmer" says in its 
issue of September 14, 1914, that "it is becoming a well-recog- 
nized fact that in the future the really good farmer will be the 
man who regards washed-away fields as little short of a crime, 
and whose only commercial fertilizer bill is for phosphoric acid 
and possibly potash." This is true. To allow soil to wash 
when washing may be avoided is criminal, and to continue to 
buy nitrogen or do without it when it may be had by growing 
leguminous crops either as winter covers or otherwise is poor 
economy, to say the least. 

11. Cultivated lands in Texas are usually idle from three 
to five months every year, depending upon the crop grown and 
section of the state in which the land is located. By Leaving 
the land idle we not only lose fertility from the soil by leach- 
ing, oxidation and washing, but we fail to reap the profits of 
a good winter crop. Land that is worth $100.00 an acre when 
producing but one crop a year is easily worth $150.00 when 
made to produce two crops. It is easier to make $150.00 an 
acre land profitable by sowing all cultivated land to winter 
cover crops than it is to make interest on the same land at 
$100.00 per acre, if no cover crops are grown. 

12. When land is heavily fertilized and the season following 
the period of fertilization is dry, the plants cannot use the 
fertilizer applied because there is not enougli moisture to dis- 
solve the plant food and make it available to the plants. The 
fertilizer, therefore, lies in the soil in about the same condition 
as it was when applied. The same is true of fresh fertility set 
free by chemical action during a hot summer. "When the fall 
and winter rains come, this food material goes into solution 
and becomes available very rapidly. If there is no cover crop 
on the soil to take it in and hold it, it is leached out and lost. 



12 Bulletin of the University of Texas 

If there is a cover crop growing on the land, the fertilizer 
intended for the summer crop will be taken in by the winter 
cover crop and saved. 

13. The leguminous crops best suited for winter covers in 
Texas are crimson clover, bur clover, and winter vetch. The 
best non-leguminous crops for this purpose are oats, rye, barley, 
wheat and rape. (Let those who have had experience with 
these or other cover crops in this section discuss such of their 
experience as would be of help to all.) 

14. All cover crops should have a well-prepared seed-bed. 
The depth of plowing will depend upon the time of preparation, 
the amount of rainfall, and the temperature. Unless the seed- 
bed can be prepared four or five weeks before time to sow, 
deep breaking is not to be recommended. If the probabilities 
of plenty of moisture (taking weather reports of previous years 
as a basis) are not good, do not plow the land deep. If one 
is practically assured of an abundance of moisture and a mild 
winter, the land may safely be plowed deep. Otherwise, it is 
better to disk up a good seed-bed or plow shallow and pulverize 
thoroughly with disk or smoothing-harrow. All seed-beds for 
winter cover crops should be firm, moist and well settled, so 
that the seeds may germinate at once. At times the cover crop 
is best planted with the one-horse drill in the middles of the 
still growing summer crop. (Let those with successful experi- 
ence in planting cover crops in this section tell of their methods 
of sowing.) 

15. 

Crop. Time of sowing. Amount of seed per acre. 

1. Crimson clover Sept. 1 to Oct. 15 12 to 20 lbs., usually 15 

2. Bur clover.. . . Sept. 1 to Nov. 15 12 to 18 lbs., usually 15 

q w , 4. i o * i 4. xt , K (20 to 30 lbs. vetch with 

3. Winter vetch.. Sept. 1 to Nov. 15 ^i/ ij U oa + s 

4. Rape Aug. 20 to Oct. 15 4 to 5 lbs. 

5. Oats Sept. 1 to Oct. 20 2 to 2% bu. 

6. Rye Sept, 15 to Oct. 15 4 to 6 pecks 

7. Barley Sept. 15 to Nov. 1 7 to 9 pecks 

8. Wheat Oct, 15 to Nov. 15 5 to 7 peeks 

It may be necessary to inoculate for crimson clover, bur 
clover, and vetch. The simplest method of inoculating for bur 



Schoolhouse Meeting — Discussion of Clover Crops ]3 

clover is to sow the clover in the burs. Soil from fields where 
crimson clover and vetch have been grown may be used to 
inoculate for each of these crops respectively. If the inoculated 
soil cannot be secured, artificial cultures can be obtained from 
the Bureau of Plant Industry, Washington, D. C. In ordering 
these cultures, be sure to state the kind of legume to be grown 
and the acreage to be inoculated. Direction for using the 
cultures will be furnished by the above Bureau. 

16. The leguminous crops are practically always to be pre- 
ferred if they can be grown satisfactorily, because of their 
ability to gather nitrogen. Crimson clover, bur clover, and 




Figure 1. Bur clover on Bermuda sod. Note the fine pasture before the 
trees have even besrun to put out. Courte > of the Alabama Agricultural 



rees 
Experiment Station 



vetch take large quantities of nitrogen from the air and trans- 
fer it to the soil. Since 1 nitrogen is the most needed food ele- 
ment in most soils, and since it is the most expensive fertilizing 
element, it is highly important that leguminous crops be grown 
to supply nitrogen. One of these legumes is adapted to one 
section, while another is better adapted to another, (irow the 
ones that grow best in your section. 



14 



Bulletin of the University of Texas 



Too much cannot be said regarding the merits of rape as a 
winter pasture. The Dwarf Essex is the best variety for Texas. 
It affords an excellent hog pasture and the seed costs but little. 
In feeding experiments at the Alabama Station, it was found 
that hogs being fed on a ration of two parts corn and one part 
of wheat, and allowed the use of rape for pasture, produced 
pork on an average of 34.4 per cent less cost per pound, count- 
ing the cost of the rape pasture, than did the lot fattened on 
the same ration and confined to dry lots. It must be remem- 
bered, however, that a few acres of rape is all that is profitable 
on any farm. One acre will afford ten to twelve one-hundred- 
pound hogs grazing for six to eight weeks, provided a moderate 
grain ration is also fed. 




Figiue 2. Swine foraging on rape. Courtesy of the Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station of the University of Wisconsin. 

Oats may be considered as one of the best and most profitable 
non-leguminous crops in the South. It is practically a sure 
crop, is easily sown, costs little to produce, affords an excellent 
winter pasture, produces a good grain or green manure crop. 



Schoollwuse Meeting — Discussion of Clover Crops 15 

and prevents washing and leaching. The South should sow 
many times its present acreage to oats. 

Rye, barley, and wheat are more or less important in certain 
areas of the South. Wheat is important in North or West 
Texas. The barley acreage in the State is very small. The 
rye acreage is altogether too small. It is the one non-legumi- 
nous crop that grows fairly well on thin and sandy soils. It 
should be used as a winter cover on large areas of soils that 
grow no cover crop at the present time. 

17. There are various combinations of leguminous and non- 
leguminous crops that often prove very valuable. Winter vetch 
is nearly always sown with oats. Rye, rape, and crimson clover 
are frequently sown together. Oats and rape make a good 
mixture. Bur clover is frequently sown on Bermuda or John- 
son grass sod. Crimson clover and oats are mixed for a winter 
cover oftentimes. Discussions of these mixtures and the 
amount of seed to sow may be found in the bulletins mentioned 
in the references for further study. 

18. To assume that but one dollar's worth of plant food is 
leached from each acre of land that is left without a growing 
crop during the winter months is placing the loss at too small 
a figure. The loss is many times this great. But even at so 
small a figure, the loss to Texas would be $27,000,000 annually, 
which is not a figure to be scoffed at. One hundred million 
would probably be a much closer estimate of this loss of fer- 
tility from lack of cover crops in Texas. To the millions^of 
dollars' worth of fertility that would be saved by cover crops, 
add the value of several months' grazing for work stock on 
27,000,000 acres each year at a time when feed is scarce, the 
value of the additional cattle and hogs that could be raised, 
the value of the extra crops made while land would otherwise 
be idle, and the value of the vegetable matter turned under in 
spring, and it is plain that cover crops can be made to add 
easily a hundred million dollars or more each year to the wealth 
of Texas. 



List of Reference* for Further Reading. 

Whiter Cr&ps: Wheat, Oats, Rye., Barley, Speltz, Vetch, Bur 
Clover, Crimson Clover; Bulletin No. 117, 1915. Georgia Ex- 
periment Station, Athens, Ga. 

Oats: Distribution and Uses. Farmer's Bulletin No. 420, 
IT. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D. C. [All 
Farmer's Bulletins are sent free by the Department upon re- 
quest.] 

Oats: Growing the Crop. Farmer's Bulletin No. 42-4. 

Winter Outs for the South. Farmers' Bulletin No. 436. 

Winter Oats in the Cotton Belt. Special, Nov. 21, 1914, U. 
S. Department of Agriculture. 

How to Avoid Failure with, Oats. Progressive Farmer, Sept. 
5, 1914. 

Barhy Culture in the Southern States. Farmer's Bulletin 
No. 427. 

Barley: Growing the Crop. Farmer's Bulletin No. 443. 

Winter Barley: Farmer's Bulletin No. 518. 

Rye in the Cotton Belt. Special, December 2, 1914. U. S. 
Department of Agriculture. 

Winter Wheat in the Cotton Belt. Special, November 21. 
1914, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

Wheat. Bulletin No. 83, Agricultural Experiment Station. 
Leyngton, Kentucky. 

Wheat Production in Georgia. Circular 6, Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station, Athens, Ga. 

Rape for Hog Pastures. The Progressive Farmer, September 
26, 1914. 

Rape as a Forage Crop in the Cotton Belt. Special Circular, 
December 15, 1915, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

Winter Bur Clover. Bulletin No. 108, A. and M. College, 
College Station, Texas. 

Southern Bur Clover. Bulletin No. 165, Alabama Experi- 
ment Station, Auburn, Alabama. 

Crimson Clover: Seed Production. Farmer's Bulletin No. 
646. 



Schoolhouse Meeting — Discussion of Clover Crops 17 

Selection for Diseasi Resistant Clover. Bulletin, Whole No. 
75, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn. 

Crimson Clover. Bulletin No. 147, Alabama Experimenl Sta- 
tion, Auburn, Alabama. 

Crimson Clover. Bulletin No. 165, Alabama Experimenl Sta- 
tion, Auburn, Alabama. 

Crimson Clover: Growing the Crop. Parmer's Bulletin No. 
550. 

Crimson Clover. Farmer's Bulletin No. 570. 

Hairy Vetch Alone and in Mixtures. Leaflet No. 29, Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station, La Payette, Indiana. 

Hairy Vetch for the Cotton Belt. Special, December 15, 1914, 
U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

Vetch Growing in the South Atlantic States. Farmer's Bulle- 
tin No. 529. 

Vetches. Farmer's Bulletin No. 515. 



DEPARTMENT OF EXTENSION 

Edwin Du Bois Shurter, Ph. B., Acting Director of the Depart- 
ment. 
Sam C. Polk, Secretary of the Department. 



Division of Correspondence Instruction : 

Leonidas Warren Payne, Jr., Ph. D., Head of the Division. 
W. Ethel Barron, Registrar of the Division. 



Division of Child Welfare : 

Alexander Caswell Ellis, Ph. D., Head of the Division. 



Division of Home Welfare : 

Mary E. Gearing, Head of the Division. 
Gertrude Louise Blodgett, B. S., Lecturer. 
Franc B. Hancock, M. A., Lecturer. 
Minerva Lawrence, B. S., Lecturer. 



Division of Public Discussion : 

Edwin Du Bois Shurter, Ph. B., Head of the Division. 
Morgan Vining, A. B., LL. B., Assistant Director of the 

Interscholastic League. 
Edwin Sue Goree, Extension Librarian. 



Division of Public Lectures and Publicity : 

John Avery Lomax, M. A., Head of the Division. 



Division of Public School Improvement : 

Raymond George Bressler, M. A., Head of the Division. 
Edw r ard Everett Davis, B. A., Lecturer. 
Amanda Stoltzfus, L. I., Lecturer. 
Newman Leander Hoopingarner, M. A., Manager of 
Exhibits. 



Division of Public Welfare : 

George Simon Wehrwein, B. S., Head of the Division. 



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